Casey Schultz - Theory Review

Casey Schultz commented on

Eli Garcia

Christina Guy

Theory Review Paper

Introduction

            Before an instructor can begin to teach adults successfully, it is best to first understand the learning process. By gaining a better idea of how individuals learn, an instructor can then create a learning plan that cater to the learning styles of students in a course in order to foster successful learning. Although every student has a different style of learning, the basics of the cyclical learning process will remain consistent regardless of the classroom environment or course materials.

Themes

                        MacKeracher (2004) provides a definition of learning and the learning process. In her book, she writes:

            Learning is a cyclical process, a sequence of activities. Under normal circumstances, the      activities proceed in one direction. The learning process may involve periodic oscillating between adjacent phases – returning to the concrete experience during reflection, returning to readings or reflections while developing abstract ideas, returning to ideas while planning and executing tests of ideas, returning to actions through feedback. However, defying the general direction of the activities tends to reduce the productivity of experiential learning (p.63).

MacKeracher further describes the learning cycle as having 5 phases. During the first phase, the learner is actively participating in activities that allow for students to absorb information that they will later apply to the learning process. In the next phase, learners give meaning to their experiences in order to make sense of those experiences. The third phase has learners putting those meanings to the test as they utilize them to make decisions and create plans for action to make those decisions possible. The fourth phase of MacKeracher’s cycle involves testing out the action plans on other people or available resources to see what works and what does not. The final phase involves reflections and feedback from the learner as well as other participates that acts as new information for the learner going back into the first phase.

Kolb (1984) describes the learning process as a cycle as well. Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle as being a continuous circle with four different categories. Kolb’s cycle begins with a Concrete Experience, where the learner is actually a part of an activity. After completing the activity, the learner moves into Reflective Observation to look back on what has been done from different viewpoints. The next step is to give those experiences meaning using either personal experiences that easily tie into the task at hand or by using theories and models that have been created by others in a process called Abstract Conceptualization. The final stage in Kolb’s cycle is Active Experimentation wherein students use their conceptualizations to guide them in their choices as they plan out new actions that will eventually become new Concrete Experiences, thus continuing the cycle.

Beach (1968) provides a very clear definition of the learning process as well as how self-directed learning can lead to better understanding. Beach explains learning as “something which happens to the person; it is not something done to him. It is a change within the individual resulting in a change in his behavior” (p.93). Beach believes that self-directed learning groups are the best way to help students because it allows for them to learn how to learn. By holding a few class sessions and providing instructions for the remainder of the course, Beach noted that there are certain factors that are increased which lead to better learning. Beach (1968) believes that self-directed learning groups improve motivation to complete the work, participation in coursework is improved, and the student is able to be an instigator in his or her own growth in the class. Having self-directed study allows students to work at their own pace rather than trying to keep up with a lecture. This is helpful as it helps students tailor learning to their own specific learning styles. Students are less likely to resist learning in a self-directed learning environment because there are not people rejecting their ideas or creating anxiety regarding group participation. Additionally, self-directed learning groups are a great way for instructors to show their confidence in adult learners because it is a big step to trust them to take the lead on their own learning experiences. As Beach (1968) says, “Studies from the past have shown lasting curiosity, more and better study, development of new interests, and greater course satisfaction growing out of the self-directed learning experience” (p. 94).

            Knowles (1990) identified the differences in the learning process between adults and children and found a few key differences. According to Knowles, adults are more aware of what they need to learn. Adults believe that they must take responsibility for their own learning. Adults have previous experiences that can both help and hinder the learning process as some past experiences can create bad habits when it comes to learning. Adults are more ready to learn when they believe they need to know the information. Adults are more focused on learning that relates to their lives or tasks and problems that they encounter. And, finally, adults are more motivated by internal factors like satisfaction in a career or a better quality of life.

            Boulton-Lewis, Wilss, and Mutch (1996) did an interesting study of teachers as adult learners to see how continued learning paired with their experiences with and knowledge of the learning process. This study was influenced heavily by the work done by Knowles (1990) and the authors had some differing perspectives as they held a constructivist viewpoint that differed from Knowles. As one example, Boulton-Lewis, Wilss, and Mutch (1996) believe that many adults in formal learning environments do not actually demonstrate the qualities that Knowles mentioned. While Knowles believes that self-directed activities are the best approach for adult learners, the researchers in this study cite other evidence that self-directed learning activities actually create discomfort for adult learners.

For their particular study, Boulton-Lewis, Wilss, and Mutch (1996) collected statements from 40 experienced teachers enrolled in tertiary courses about their beliefs on learning. When it came to the learning process, the teachers mentioned some key words: “collaborative, tactile, hands-on, active, kinesthetic, notes, visual, diagrams, and listen” (p. 101). While the literature presented by the researchers would suggest that theses adult students would be self-motivated and independent learners, but the responses the teachers gave did not demonstrate this. The researchers propose that this belief that learning should be based on facts could stem from their experiences working within the curricula and examination requirements of the courses they teach rather than from their experiences as adult learners. Based on the responses of the teachers, the researchers suggest that teachers of adult learners should create interventions for teachers that allow them to better reflect on their own learning and experiences with the goal of creating adult learners that behave in an expected way.

Implications and Applications

            Based on what I have read in these articles, the best way to facilitate adult learning is to understand the motivations and learning styles of the students in the class. While one researcher is able to make very specific statements about the adult learner and the best way to teach them, another researcher is able to provide just as much research to prove that the opposite can be true. By understanding the learning process as a whole, instructors are able to customize courses to fit the needs of their students. One of the most important realizations about learners (regardless of their age) is that everyone has his or her own learning style. What works for one student, may not work for another. It is vital for instructors of adult learners to identify the learning styles of all students to help create the best classroom environment. Treating all students as though they learn in the same way simply because of the age group or even the subject matter will only lead to a lessened level of understanding of the topics being presented. Additionally, it is crucial for instructors to be aware of the age group that is in their classroom. When working with adult learners, it is important to know that these learners are bringing in many more experiences with them than a typical 18-year-old college freshman would bring. Adult learners may be entering the classroom with bad learning habits that they have developed over their years outside of the classroom. Breaking those habits may take additional time and instructors of adult learners specifically should be prepared to deal with these potential barriers to the learning process when creating activities and schedules for the course.

            Because the learning process is cyclical, learners may approach assignments or projects by beginning in different phases. While they all will eventually make it through the entire learning process over the course of an assignment, it is important to realize that learners will approach projects a different way. Understanding the different phases of the learning process, whether using a 5-phase model or a 4-phase model, is going to help instructors to recognize where individual students are at and help them make any necessary adjustments that may be needed to help them continue to navigate through the cycle. Instructors need to make sure that they are aware of the learning process in general as well as where individual students are at in the process in order to better direct them.

            Reflection is another very important part of the learning process. The best way to figure out what to do next is to look back at what was done previously to see what works and what does not. Reflection also allows for learners to create more meaning from experiences (an important phase in the learning cycle). Taking time at the end of an assignment or project to think about what a student has learned should be a part of every course. Evaluations are also another helpful form of reflection that allows for learners to tell instructors what they could possibly be doing to better foster the learning process in their students. Reflection is more beneficial when there is involvement from multiple parties rather than solely from the learner. Instructors should be sure to build in multiple opportunities for reflection during the course of a class or workshop.

Theoretical Ideas	Summary
Every learner is unique	All learners bring their own unique learning style to the learning process. It is important to identify individual learning styles in order to meet students at their individual levels.
The learning process is a cycle	Learners move through different phases in the learning process as they work on assignments and projects in the classroom. While learners may start at different phases, they will eventually make it through all of the phases before they finish.
Experiential learning is an important part of the learning process	Learners need to have the chance to actively test their action plans when it comes to learning. If they do not have the chance to
Adult learners work through the learning process differently	It is important for instructors of adult learners to take into account the possible bad habits or past experiences that influence a learner’s approach to the learning process.
Reflection is necessary for growth	In order to adjust for the future, it is important for learners to reflect on their work in the classroom to see what, if anything, could potentially be changed in the future.

References

Beach, L. R. (1968). The learning process in self-directed groups. Improving College and                      University Teaching, 16(2), 93-95.

Boulton-Lewis, G. M., Wilss, L., & Mutch, S. (1996). Teachers as adult learners: Their             knowledge of their own learning and teaching. Higher Education, 32(1), 89-106.

Knowles, K.G. (1990). The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species. Houston, Texas: Gulf Publishing.

Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and    development. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

MacKeracher, D. (2004). Making Sense of Adult Learning (2^nd ed.).  Toronto, Canada:        University of Toronto Press.